Heterodox
Here is John Maynard Keynes in 1926: "Let us clear from the ground the metaphysical or general principles upon which, from time to time, laissez-faire has been founded. It is not true that individuals possess a prescriptive 'natural liberty' in their economic activities. There is no 'compact' conferring perpetual rights on those who Have or on those who Acquire. The world is not so governed from above that private and social interest always coincide. It is not so managed here below that in practice they coincide. It is not a correct deduction from the Principles of Economics that enlightened self-interest always operates in the public interest. Nor is it true that self-interest generally is enlightened; more often individuals acting separately to promote their own ends are too
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Here is John Maynard Keynes in 1926:
"Let us clear from the ground the metaphysical or general principles upon which, from time to time, laissez-faire has been founded. It is not true that individuals possess a prescriptive 'natural liberty' in their economic activities. There is no 'compact' conferring perpetual rights on those who Have or on those who Acquire. The world is not so governed from above that private and social interest always coincide. It is not so managed here below that in practice they coincide. It is not a correct deduction from the Principles of Economics that enlightened self-interest always operates in the public interest. Nor is it true that self-interest generally is enlightened; more often individuals acting separately to promote their own ends are too ignorant or too weak to attain even these. Experience does not show that individuals, when they make up a social unit, are always less clear-sighted than when they act separately.
We cannot, therefore, settle on abstract grounds, but must handle on its merits in detail, what Burke termed 'one of the finest problems in legislation, namely, to determine what the State ought to take upon itself to direct by the public wisdom, and what it ought to leave, with as little interference as possible, to individual exertion.' We have to discriminate between what Bentham, in his forgotten but useful nomenclature, used to term Agenda and NonAgenda, and to do this without Bentham's prior presumption that interference is, at the same time, 'generally needless' and 'generally pernicious.' Perhaps the chief task of Economists at this hour is to distinguish afresh the Agenda of Government from the Non-Agenda; and the companion task of Politics is to devise forms of Government within a Democracy which shall be capable of accomplishing the Agenda. -- John Maynard Keynes, The end of laissez faire. In Essays in Pursuasion, 1931
Here is Joan Robinson in 1962, from a later reprint:
"It is possible to defend our economic system on the ground that, patched up with Keynesian correctives, it is, as he put it, the 'best in sight'. Or at any rate that it not too bad, and change is painful. In short, that our system is the best system that we have got.
Or it is possible to take the tough-minded line that Schumpeter derived from Marx. The system is cruel, unjust, turbulent. but it does deliver the goods, and, damn it all, it's the goods that you want.
Or, conceding its defects, to defend it on political grounds - that democracy as we know it could not have grown up under any other system and cannot survive without it.
What is not possible, at this time of day, is to defend it, in the neo-classical style, as a delicate self-regulating mechanism, that has only to be left to itself to produce the greatest satisfaction for all.
But none of the alternative defenses really sound very well. Nowadays, to support the status quo, the best course is just to leave all these awkwards problems alone." -- Joan Robinson. 1964. Economic Philosophy. Pelican: p. 130.